英譯（韋達）

III. THE TEN AVARANAS

The Ten Avaranas (barriers) are:

1. Prthagjanatvavarana, the barrier constituted by the nature of Prthagjana (ordinary person unenlightened by Buddhism).

(1)   This barrier is formed by those constituent parts of the two Avaranas, klesavarana and jneyavarana, which arise ‘by speculation and discrimination': their Bijas are the basis on which the nature of Prthagjana is established.

(2)   The adepts of the two Vehicles, when they attain Darsanamarga (insight into Truth), cut off only the Bijas of klesavarana: they become from that moment Aryas (saints or sages): they are said to have obtained the Arya-nature(Aryagotra). The Bodhisattvas, when they attain Darsanamarga, cut off the Bijas of both Avaranas: thenceforth they become Aryas, and are said to have acquired the Arya-nature.

(3)   When true Darsanamarga is attained, whether by adepts of the two Vehicles or by Bodhisattvas, the Bijas of the Avaranas which the Arya-path has destroyed will definitely not continue to manifest themselves, the reason being that the Aiya-nature and the Prthagjana-nature cannot exist simultaneously, just as light and darkness cannot co-exist, and just as, in the case of a balance, when one side of the bar rises, the other side automatically falls. Such is the law governing contradictory dharmas. Therefore our system does not present the erroneous idea that the nature of Prthagjana and that of Arya should be simultaneous.

(4)   [Objection by the Sarvastivadin: For us, on the Anantaryamarga (the uninterrupted path), there is still some klesa that may arise: hence the necessity of the Vimuktimarga (the path of liberation), which counteracts klesas]; but, for you, at the moment of Anantaryamarga, the Bijas of klesa have disappeared. What, then, is the use of Vimuktimarga?

First explanation. - One requires the two paths by reason of the duality of aspiration in the preparatory stage. The Anantaryamarga is required when the aspiration is for the cutting of klesas, while the Vimuktimarga is required when the aspiration is for the destruction of klesas.

Second explanation, which is better. - One produces the Vimuktimarga to reject to dausthulya or the 'crude-heavy nature'. Although at the moment of Anantaryamarga there are no more Bijas of klesa, the yogin has not yet abandoned the quality of inaptitude which proceeds from klesas. It is to abandon this inaptitude that one produces the Vimuktimarga and realizes that unconditioned non-active unity which is the 'discrimination-annihilation' (Pratisamkhyanirodha) of such a category of klesas.

(5)   Although the Darsanamarga, on being born, also cuts off 'the deeds and the fruits of bad destinies, etc., nevertheless the definition which has just been given [that 'the Darsanamarga destroys the nature of Prthagjana'] aims only at the klesas [of Klesavarana and Jneyavarana] which produce these deeds and fruits, because they are the root.

In fact, as taught in the Samdhinirmocana Sutra, the Bodhisattva cuts off in the first Bhumi two delusions (Mohas) and their dausthulya. These two delusions are: a. the delusion of clinging to the Atman and to dharmas as real entities; that which, properly speaking, is the self-nature of Prthagjana; b. the delusion which comprises the impurity or defilement of bad destinies, that is to say, 'deeds and fruits of bad destiny', etc.

Here, as further on, delusion means the entire category of delusion.

Or else, the two delusions refer solely to those two, one 'sharp' or intense and the other 'dull' or weak, arising simultaneously with the two Avaranas.

What is one to understand by the dausthulya (crude and heavy elements) of the two delusions?

It means the Bijas of the two delusions [The two delusions are actual; their dausthulya is their Bijas], or perhaps the inaptitude produced by the two delusions. In a similar sense it is said that entrance into the second Dhyana cuts off the root of suffering of Kamadhatu. In truth, the root of suffering which is cut off in the second Dhvana is neither actual nor in the state of Bija; it has already ceased to exist, its Bijas having already been cut off in the first Dhyana. In the second Dhyana there remains only the 'inaptitude' named dausthulya. It is the same here.

These remarks are valid for the dausthulyas of other Bhumis.

(6)   Although the first Bhumi cuts off the two Avaranas, nevertheless, according to the intention of the text which says that the first Bhumi cuts off the nature of Prthagjana, etc., it is merely a question of Jneyavarana, not of Klesavarana.

Vasubandhu in his Samgraha, 7, says in effect: 'The ten Avidyas (ignorance) are not defiled [from the point of view of the two Vehicles]'. These ten Avidyas are the ten pairs of delusions which are being studied here.

Why are these Avidyas considered as non-defiled, that is to say, as corresponding to Jneyavarana? - Because the two Vehicles are also capable of cutting off Klesavarana. The cutting off of Klesavarana is therefore common to the two Vehicles and to Bodhisattvas. Now our text is concerned with that which belongs especially to Bodhisattvas.

Further, this formula: 'The ten Avidyas are not defiled' refers to the Avidyas which are cut off by meditation and moral cultivation in the course of the ten Bhumis. It is true that, in this stage, the Bodhisattva also suppresses his klesas and cuts off the dausthulya which they provoke; but the text has not that in view, because a Bodhisattva does not cut off the anusayas (or Bijas) of klesas.

(7) In fact, in the Bhavanamarga of the first Bhumi (that is to say, after the initial stage which is Darsanamarga), the Bodhisattva cuts off a part of innate Jneyavarana; but our text mentions only that which is cut off right at the beginning of the Bhumi, [that is to say, the nature of Prthagjana which is Jneyavarana of speculation]. Similarly, this applies to the 'cutting off' effected in the nine other Bhumis: it is always a question of that which is cut off at the beginning of the Bhumi. During the very long period (two Asamkhyeyas) spent in the Land of Residence and the Land of Achievement of each Bhumi, the Bodhisattva should cut off progressively that part of his innate Jneyavarana which must be cut off in each Bhumi, On the contrary hypothesis, there would be no difference between the Path and the Lands of Entry, Residence, and Achievement.

The Abhidharma, 14, says, therefore, that the Bodhisattva, after having obtained the Abhisamaya (path of insight), and in the course of the Bhavanamarga of the ten Bhumis, cultivates only the path which destroys for ever his Jneyavarana and preserves the Klesavarana that sustains his pious vow to return to birth again. Unlike the adept of the two Vehicles 'who rushes with all speed to his goal of Eternal Rest', he does not cut off Klesavarana in the course of Bhavanamarga. It is only at the moment of attaining Buddhahood that he cuts it off instantaneously.

2. Mithyapratipattyavarana, the barrier of bad or perverse conduct

 This refers to a part of innate Jneyavarana with the three offensive deeds (of body, speech, and thought) which produce this part.

This barrier impedes the three pure moralities (sila) of the second Bhumi. It is absolutely cut off in the 'stage of entry' of this Bhumi. That is why the Yogasastra teaches that the second Bhumi cuts off two delusions with their dausthulya (Bijas): (1) the delusion of committing slight offences, that is to say, a part of innate Jneyabarana; (2) the delusion of performing various kinds of wrong or offensive deeds, that is to say, the three offensive deeds which produce first delusion.

Or else,according to another theory, the two delusion are: (1) the delusion: that gives rise to bad acts; (2) the delusion that is ignorant of the nature of deeds.

3. Dhandhatvavarana, the barrier of unintelligence and failure of memory. ' This is a part of innate Jneyavarana which causes failure of memory of the dharmas of audition, of reflection, and of meditation.

This barrier impedes the Samadhi-Dharani of the third Bhumi and the three excellent Prajnas which they produce. It is absolutely cut off in the stage of entry of this Bhumi.

Therefore the third Bhumi cuts off two delusions with their dausthulya:

(1)   Kamaragamoha, the delusion of desire-covetousness which impedes Samadhi and Prajna-of-meditation. It is given the name of Kamaragamoha because, formerly, it was habitually associated with the klesa called Kamaraga (desire of the five objects of enjoyment). In the third Bhumi, where the yogin obtains Samadhi and the Prajna-of-meditation, this delusion is absolutely cut off, and, at the same time, the Kamaraga klesa is suppressed, for, since before the beginning of time, this klesa has taken as supporting basis that delusion of desire-covetousness which is a part of Jneyavarana.

(2)   Dharanisrutaparipurimoha, the delusion of ignoring or disregarding the perfect Dharanis of audition and moral cultivation. This delusion impedes the Dharanis and the Prajnas of audition and of reflection, [and also the Prajna of meditation].

4. Suksmaklesasamudacaravarana, the barrier which consists in the manifestation of subtle klesas.

This is a part of innate Jneyavarana which comprises the erroneous ‘I-and-mine' view (satkayadrsti), etc., of the sixth consciousness. It is said of this klesa that it is very subtle. This is because it belongs to the lowest category; because it does not proceed from an act of attention, being born spontaneously; and because it has been in manifestation since before the beginning of time.

This barrier impedes the bodhipaksika (conditions leading to Bodhi or Buddhahood) of the fourth Bhumi. It is absolutely cut off at the moment of entrance into that Bhumi.

It is given the name of klesa, because, formerly, it was spontaneously born of the same nature as the klesa of Atmagrahadrsti (self-clinging-and-belief), etc., which arise spontaneously in the sixth consciousness. - Now, since the Yogin has, in the fourth Bhumi, obtained the pure bodhipaksika dharmas, this barrier is absolutely cut off; and it follows that the klesa of atmadrsti (self-belief), etc., will never again grow into manifestation.

Why is Atmadrsti not cut off in the first, second and third Bhumis?

This Avarana is not cut off in the first three Bhumis because it does not constitute any barrier to their own dharmas.

In the course of the first three Bhumis, the Bodhisattva practises charity, morality, and meditation: These practices are similar to those of the external world, where sentient beings practise them also. [In these three Bhumis the Bodhisattva is not yet capable of cultivating the dharmas of Bodhi.] Now, in the fourth Bhumi, he practises the bodhipaksika dharmas, and it is because of this that the fourth Bhumi is called the 'supramundane' Bhumi. In consequence of this, he destroys absolutely the two satkayadrstis, etc. [The Bodhisattva destroys the satkayadrsti of 'speculation' of the. sixth consciousness upon entry into the first Bhumi; he destroys the innate satkayadrsti upon entry into the fourth.]

How do we know that the satkayadrsti destroyed here is the satkayadrsti associated with the sixth consciousness?

The satkayadrsti associated with the seventh consciousness is in contradiction to the nature of the pure path; it ceases to appear in the eighth Bhumi, but continues to appear in the seventh, serving as the supporting basis for the other klesas (anger, covetousness, etc.). The satkayadrsti of the sixth consciousness is crude and is therefore suppressed first; that of the seventh is subtle and is therefore suppressed later. Hence the satkayadrsti destroyed here in the fourth Bhumi is associated only with the sixth consciousness.

By the expression 'satkayadrsti, etc.', one must understand [not only the atmadrsti, atmiyadrsti, antagrahadrsti, atmamana, atmasneha and the Upaklesas,¹ but] also the samadhisneha, 'attachment to meditation', and the dharmasneha, 'attachment to Dharma', which are part of the eternal Jneyavarana, and which have been increasing, as they should be, in the course of the first three Bhumis. They are absolutely cut off upon entry into the fourth Bhumi [where the Bodhisattva acquires pure meditation and pure Dharma, and consequently mastery of them], because they are in contradiction to the bodhipaksika dharmas.

Consequently the fourth Bhumi cuts off two delusions and their dausthulya (inaptitudes):

(1)   The delusion of attachment to meditation (samapatti), accompanied by samadhisneha.

(2)   The delusion of attachment to Dharma, accompanied by dharmasneha.

In fact, by the abandonment of these two delusions which are part of Jneyavarana, the two snehas or attachments, which are klesas, will never again enter into operation since their supporting basis no longer exists.

5.     Hinayanaparinirvanavarana, the barrier that consists in attachment to the Parinirvana of the Hinayana School.

It is a part of innate Jneyavarana, which causes the Bodhisattva to have a horror of Samsara (rounds of birth and death) and aspire after Nirvana, just as people of the two lower Vehicles have a horror of suffering and rejoice in its destruction.

This barrier impedes the path of non-differentiation of the fifth Bhumi (which path recognizes the identity and equality of Samsara and Nirvana). When one enters the fifth Bhumi, it is absolutely cut off.

Therefore the fifth Bhumi cuts off two delusions with their dausthulya (inaptitudes): (1) the delusion of conceiving ideas for the sole purpose of turning away from birth and death; this is the delusion of horror of Samsara; (2) the delusion of conceiving ideas for the sole purposes of turning towards Nirvana; this is the delusion of predilection for Nirvana.

6.     Sthulanimittasamudacaravarana, the barrier which consists in the presence of crude characteristics.

This is a part of innate Jneyavarana and consists in the erroneous belief that there are in manifestation crude characteristics of impurity and purity. [One believes that Reality or Tathata also presents the characteristics of impurity and purity, because, in the previous Bhumis, one has considered four Noble Truths, two impurities and two purities].

This Avarana impedes the 'path of neither-impurity-nor-purity' of the sixth Bhumi and is absolutely cut off upon entry into this Bhumi.

Therefore the sixth Bhumi cuts off two delusions with their dausthulya (inaptitudes):

(1)   The delusion of perceiving and examining the evolution of the Samskaras, that is to say, the functioning of mind in its processes regarding like and dislike, good and evil, etc. This delusion admits that samklesa (impurity) is present, for the evolution of the Samskaras is comprised in the 'impurity’ category.

(2)   The delusion of believing in the manifestation of numerous characteristics. This delusion admits that vyavadana (purity) is present, because one adheres to the notion of purity. The contemplation accompanied by nimitta (or notion), [by the Prsthalabdhajnana which cherishes the notion of purity], is too frequently practised with the result that the yogin cannot reside for any length of time in nirnimitta contemplation, that is to say, contemplation accompanied by no concepts of purity.

7.     Suksmaninimittasamudacaravarana, the barrier which consists of the presence of subtle characteristics.

This is a part of innate Jneyavarana and consists in the erroneous belief that there are in manifestation subtle characteristics of birth and destruction.

This barrier impedes the 'wonderful path free from characteristics' of the seventh Bhumi, and is absolutely cut off upon entry into this Bhumi.

It follows from this that the seventh Bhumi cuts off two delusions with their dausthulya:

(1)   The delusion of believing in the presence and manifestation of subtle characteristics. This delusion admits that there is birth, because one continues to admit the manifestation of subtle characteristics of birth.

(2)   The delusion of conceiving ideas for the sole purpose of seeking freedom from characteristics. This delusion admits that there is destruction because, admitting the existence of birth, one continues to cherish with stronger reasons the subtle notion of destruction; one seeks, with intense mental activity and exclusive, assiduous application, freedom from characteristics of all kinds (animitta); one is still incapable of introducing the contemplation of existence in the contemplation of the Void or Reality.

8.     Nirnimittabhisamskaravarana, the barrier which consists in indulging in mental functions in a contemplation that should be free from concepts or characteristics.

This is a part of innate Jneyavarana, which prevents nirnimitta contemplation (i.e., contemplation free from concepts) from proceeding spontaneously.

In the first five Bhumis, contemplation with notions (sanimitta) is normal; contemplation without notions is rare. In the sixth Bhumi, contemplation with notions is rare while contemplation without notions is normal. In the seventh Bhumi, [as one has cut off the subtle nimittas of birth and destruction], contemplation is exclusively nirnimitta., that is to say, entirely free from notions, and makes a continuous series: however, at this stage, preparatory efforts are still required [because the Bodhisattva has not yet mastered this contemplation].

Inasmuch as preparatory efforts are still necessary in this nirnimitta contemplation, the Bodhisattva is incapable of manifesting spontaneously different kinds of phenomena [e.g., forms of gold, silver, jewels, etc.], and various 'lands' [of different sizes, colours, etc.], according to his desires.

These preparatory efforts impede the anabhoga path (the path of effortlessness) of the eighth Bhumi; it is absolutely cut off upon entry into this Bhumi. At the same time, the Bodhisatta obtains two masteries (mastery of phenomena and mastery of lands).

It follows from this that the eighth Bhumi cuts off two delusions with their dausthulya (inaptitudes):

(1)   The delusion of making mental efforts in a contemplation that is, in its essential nature, free from notions.

(2)   The delusion of not achieving mastery with reference to phenomena (gold, silver, etc.) In other words, this delusion prevents one from achieving mastery of phenomena: this expression includes lands which are a part of phenomena.

From the eighth Bhumi and above, the exclusively pure path appears spontaneously with the result that the klesas of the three Dhatus will never again enter into activity. However, the subtle Jneyavarana of the seventh consciousness (dharma-grasping Manas) can still manifest itself, for the non-discriminative wisdom of Pudgalasunyata and its fruit (prsthalabdhajnana) are compatible with this Jneyavarana.

1 See Sections on Klesas and Upaklesas of the sixth Consciousness in Book IV.

英譯（韋達）

II. THE TEN PARAMITAS

I. Definition and Varieties

The ten excellent moral exercises are the ten Paramitas.

1. Dana. - Gifts or charity.

Gifts are of three kinds: (1) material gifts, sustaining the body; (2) gifts of security or freedom from fear, sustaining the mind; and (3) gifts of Dharma, sustaining the good Dharma.

2. Sila. - Morality or observance of commandments.

Commandments are of three kinds: (1) Commandments governing personal conduct; (2) commandments for the acquisition of good Dharma; and (3) commandments for the bestowal of benefits and advantages on sentient beings,

3.Ksanti. - Patient endurance.

Patient endurance is of three kinds: (1) to endure patiently resentment and injury; (2) to accept quietly sorrow and suffering; and (3) to examine patiently and adhere to the Dharma.

4. Virya. - Zeal in making progress.

Zeal in making progress is of three kinds;(1) zeal in producing great resolutions; (2) zeal in acquiring good spiritual dharmas; and (3) zeal in promoting the well-being and happiness of sentient beings.

5. Dhyana. - Meditation and contemplation.

Meditation is of three kinds: (1) meditation leading to Samadhi; (2) meditation leading to the unfoldment of supernatural powers; and (3) meditation leading to the successful accomplishment of great tasks.

6. Prajna. - Discernment

Prajna is of three kinds: (1) Pudgalasunyata-non-discriminating Prajna (intuitive discernment of the voidness of the Atman); (2) Dharmasunyata-non-discriminating-Prajna (intuitive discernment of the voidness of all dharmas); (3) Pudgalasunyata-dharmasunyata-non-discriminating-Prajna (intuitive discernment of the voidness of Atman and all dharmas).

7. Upayakausala. - Skill in resorting to appropriate expedients.

Skill in resorting to appropriate expedients is of two kinds: (1) Skill in turning the mind towards Mahabodhi (Supreme Enlightenment); and (2) skill in delivering sentient beings from suffering.

8. Pranidhana. - Pious vows.

Pious vows are of two kinds: (1) pious vows for attaining Bodhi; and (2) vows for promoting the well-being and happiness of sentient beings.

9.     Bala. - Power of fulfilment.

Power of fulfilment is of two kinds: (1) the power of cogitation; and (2) the power of self-cultivation. These powers are exercised in order that the first six Paramitas may never be interrupted.

10.   Jnana. - Transcendental wisdom,

[According to the Samgraha Sastra, this Jnana is evolved as a result of the practice of the first six Paramitas.] It is of two kinds: (1) wisdom with which the Bodhisattva enjoys the 'felicity of Dharma'; and (2) wisdom with which he enables sentient beings to reach 'spiritual maturity'.

2. What do the ten Paramitas consist of?

What is their essential nature?

1. Dana, charity, consists of alobha, non-covetousness, and the three deeds (mind, body, and voice) which proceed from Alobha.

2. Sila, morality, consists of the three deeds learned by the Bodhisattva at his ordination ceremony, during which he receives instructions on the commandments to be observed by him.

3. Ksanti, patient endurance, consists of advesa (non-anger, i.e., pardon for injuries), virya (zeal), investigative Prajna, and the three deeds proceeding from advesa.

4. Virya, zeal in making progress, consists of diligent effort and the three deeds proceeding therefrom.

5. Dhyana, meditation and contemplation, consists only of Samadhi. [It does not include states of dispersed mind.]

6-10. The last five Paramitas consist of criticism or discernment of the dharmas (that is to say,  prajna), for the Samgraha teaches that the sixth Paramita (Prajna) is Mulajnana (Root or Fundamental Wisdom) and the last four are Prsthalabdhajnana (Subsequent Wisdom, i.e., wisdom succeeding upon or arising from Primary Wisdom).

According to certain scholars, the eighth, Pranidhanaparamita (pious vows), consists of desire (Chanda), decision or resolve (Adhimoksa) and belief (Sraddha), for every vow is by its own nature a desire or wish, etc. [No dispute on the subject of the other Paramitas: these scholars say only that Pranidhana is not by its own nature Prajna. If the Samgraha says that Pranidhanaparamita is Subsequent Wisdom, it is because the Bodhisattva produces Pranidhana in the course of the unfolding of this wisdom.]

We have examined what the Paramitas consist of, that is to say, their self-nature (svabhava). If we consider them with their 'relatives or family-members', we shall say that each of them consists also of all the merits or good qualities that accompany it.

3. The Seven Excellences

For these virtues to receive the name of Paramitas, they must be comprised and embodied in the seven excellences ：

1.     Excellence of establishment, which means that the yogin must be well established in the Gotra (seed-nature) of the Bodhisattvas.

2.     Excellence of the Supporting basis' (asraya), which means that the virtues must have their supporting basis in the mind and heart of Mahabodhi.

3.     Excellence of desire and aspiration, which means that the yogin must have compassion and benevolence towards all sentient beings.

4.     Excellence of profession, which means that the virtues must be accompanied by all deeds that conform to their spirit.

5.     Excellence of expedients, which means that the Paramitas must be comprised in the wisdom that is free from nimitta, in such a way that, in performing deeds of charity, the Manovijnana does not 'cling’ to the giver, the receiver, or the gifts received or given.

6.     Excellence of dedication, which mean that the yogin must dedicate himself and turn his Paramita-virtues to Anuttarasamyaksambodhi (Supreme Enlightenment).

7.     Excellence of purity, which means that the virtues must not be tainted by, or mixed with, the two Avaranas.

If the Paramita-virtues are not comprised and embodied in these seven excellences, the charitable deeds, etc., performed by the yogin will not enable him to reach the other shore.

It follows from this that, with regard to the relations between the ten virtues, charity, etc., and Paramita, i.e., 'reaching the other shore’, one can establish four alternatives: (1) charity which is Paramita; (2) charity which is not Paramita; (3) Paramita which is not charity, (4) neither charity nor Paramita, and so forth.

4. Number of Paramitas

The Paramitas are ten in number, neither more nor less, because the Bodhisattvas must, in all the ten Bhumis, oppose ten Avaranas, and realize ten Bhutatathatas.

1.     First, the first six Paramitas are six, neither more nor less, because they are intended to expel six obstacles which contradict them (miserliness, immorality, hostility, laziness, distraction, and false views), in order to acquire progressively the Buddhadharmas (the ten powers, etc.), and to develop sentient beings progressively to the fullest extent. These three points are explained in other treatises.

2.     Again, the first three Paramitas, charity, etc., are 'the path of increase and promotion’, because they produce riches, an excellent body, and good companions respectively; the last three, zeal, etc., are ‘the path of decisive victory’, because, respectively, they suppress klesas and cause sentient beings and Buddhadharmas to grow and develop to the fullest extent. The paths of all Bodhisattvas fall into these two categories.

3.     Further, by virtue of the first three Paramitas, the Bodhisattva renders service to sentient beings by giving them money and other good things for their benefit, avoiding injuring or tormenting them, and patiently enduring their outrages, thus doing good to them. The last three, zeal, etc., oppose the klesas; although Viryaparamita neither suppresses nor cuts off the klesas, nevertheless it invigorates all good preparatory exercises (prayaga) which oppose the klesas; Dhyanaparamita suppresses the klesas and Prajnaparamita eliminates them.

4.     Furthermore, by virtue of the first three Paramitas, the Bodhisattva does not establish himself in Nirvana permanently; by virtue of the last three, he does not establish himself in Samsara (rounds of birth and death, i.e., transmigration): the six are therefore the preparation, i.e., the sambhara, for Apratisthitanirvana (attainment of Nirvana without abiding in it).

Therefore the first six Paramitas are six, neither more nor less.

5.     Finally, the last four of the ten Paramitas must be four, because their function is to ensure the perfection of the first six.

Skilful expedients aid the first three Paramitas, charity, etc.; pious vows aid the fourth, zeal; the power of fulfilment aids the fifth, meditation and contemplation; transcendental wisdom aids the sixth, Prajnaparamita.

These points have been explained in detail in the Samdhinirmocana Sutra.

5. Order of the Paramitas

The ten Paramitas are set forth in the present order because the preceding one produces the following one; the one following confirms and purifies the one preceding.

Further, the preceding ones are crude compared with the following ones; the practice of the preceding ones is comparatively easier.

6. Names of the Paramitas

Why are these virtues called Paramitas? And why are they called Dana-paramita, etc.?

These general and special names have been explained in other treatises. [According to K'uei Chi, five explanations are given in the Yogasastra, 78, and the Samdhinirmocana Sutra, and twelve in the Abhidharma. At the same time, etymologically, 'para' means ‘the other shore’ and ‘mita' means 'reaching’; 'paramita' therefore means 'reaching the other shore'; that is to say, the six paramita-virtues ferry the ascetic across the sea of mortality to Nirvana.]

7. Cultivation of the Paramitas

As explained in detail in the Abhidharmasamuccaya and other texts, the cultivation of the ten Paramitas enables the Bodhisattva to attain perfection by reason of a quintuple culture, i.e., five methods of cultivation, namely, (1) cultivation dependent on firm adherance to the Paramitas; (2) cultivation dependent on constant attention to the Paramitas; (3) cultivation dependent on keen aspiration after the Paramitas; (4) cultivation dependent on skilful expedients ; and (5) cultivation dependent on self-realization with a mind free from obstacles and perverted views.

8. Reciprocal Inclusion

One may say that each of the ten Paramitas comprises the nine others, because they are interrelated.

The practice of the Paramita that precedes leads to the Paramita that follows. From this point of view, the preceding one comprises the following one, which depends on it; the one following does not comprise the one preceding, which does not depend on it.

But the practice of the subsequent Paramita confirms and purifies the preceding one. From this point of view, the succeeding one comprises the one preceding, but not vice versa.

In considering mixed or non-mixed practices of the Paramitas, there are four alternatives; [e.g., (1) Charity which is not Paramita, as in the case of a person who gives in charity for selfish purposes and not for the realization of Bodhi; (2) Paramita which is not Charity, as in the case of a person who has no money to give in charity, but who encourages others to do so and rejoices with them; (3) acts that are both Charity and Paramita, as in the case of a person who gives in charity and dedicates the merits to Anuttarasamyaksambodhi; and (4) deeds that appear to be charitable and are, in reality, neither Charity nor Paramita … K'uei Chi.]

9. Ten and Six

In fact, there are ten Paramitas. If a list of six is drawn up, it is because the last four are comprised in the sixth, Prajnaparamita. The reason why the Paramitas are divided into ten in number is that the sixth, Prajnaparamita, proceeds from Nirvikalpakaj nana (Fundamental, Non-discriminating Wisdom), while the fast four proceed from Prsthalabdhajnana (Subsequent Wisdom, i.e., wisdom that follows or arises out of Fundamental Wisdom), for they are related to ordinary or worldly wisdom (Samvrti).

10. Fruits of the Ten Paramitas

Among the fruits of the ten Paramitas, there are four that are impure, excluding the Visamyogaphala, which is always pure  and four that are pure, excluding the Vipakaphala.

One text, Abhidharma, 12, says that the Paramitas have five fruits. This is because it either considers the mutual assistance which the fruits lend to one another, or considers, together, the pure and impure fruits which the Paramitas can bear.

11. The Paramitas and the Three Branches of Learning (Siksas)

The ten Paramitas and the three branches of learning (Siksa), Sila, Samadhi and Prajna, are mutually inclusive.

1.     Learning in respect of Sila (i.e., Adhisilam Siksa or moral commandments to be observed by a Bodhisattva) is of three kinds:

(1) Commandments in the form of rules and regulations, the observance of which signifies total abstention from dharmas wherefrom one should totally abstain;

(2)   Commandments relating to the acquisition of good dharmas, which signifies cultivation and realization of dharmas which should be cultivated and realized; and

(3)   Commandments relating to the bastowal of benefits on sentient beings, which signifies the procurement of happiness and well-being for all sentient beings.

Between these three branches of learning and the two Vehicles there are certain identities and certain differences.

As regards the profundity and comprehensiveness of the moral commandments to be observed by Bodhisattvas, this has been explained in other treatises.

2.     Learning in respect of Samadhi (Adhicittam Siksa) is of four kinds:

(1)   Mahayana-illuminating Samadhi, so called because this meditation can produce the light of wisdom which illuminates the principles, teachings, practices, and fruits of the Greater Vehicle.

(2)   Merit-accumulating Royal Samadhi, so called because this meditation can spontaneously accumulate merits which are as boundless as the power of a king is unequalled.

(3)   Virtue-maintaining Samadhi, so called because this meditation can guard and maintain good mundane and supramundane dharmas.

(4)   All-powerful Samadhi, so called because this Samadhi is practised by great heroes, that is, Buddhas and Boddhisattvas.

These four Samadhis are characterized and distinguished by their objects, their antitheses, their capacities, their fruits, and their activities.

3. The learning in respect of Prajna (Adhiprajnam Siksa) is of three kinds ：

 (1) Prayogika-nirvikalpika Prajna, i.e., non-discriminating transcendental wisdom which stresses the importance of intensified effort for moral advancement.

(2} Mula-nirvikalpika Prajna, i.e., the fundamental non-discriminating wisdom.

(3) Prsthalabdha-nirvikalpika Prajna, i.e., the non-discriminating wisdom that follows or arises out of the fundamental wisdom.

a.     The explanation of these three wisdoms (jnanas) in respect of their nature (svabhava), their supporting basis (asraya), their cause (hetupratyaya), their object (alambana), their mode of activity (akara), etc., may be found in other treatises (e.g., in the Samgraha Sastra).

b.     The five stages of the Path and the three Prajnas

In the first two stages (Sambhara and Prayoga), the three Prajnas exist in the state of Bija while the first of them, i.e., the Prayogika-nirvikalpika Prajna, is in actual manifestation.

In the Prativedha stage (the third stage, that of unimpeded penetrating understanding), the second and third Prajnas (i.e., the Mula-nirvikalpika Prajna and the Prsthalabdha-nirvikalpika prajna) are in actual manifestation while all the three Prajnas are in the state of Bija. The reason why the first Prajna (Prayoga) is not in manifestation is that it is not present during the Darsanamarga period (the third stage).

In the Bhavana stage (i.e., the fourth) it is necessary to distinguish: up to and including the seventh Bhumi, the three Prajnas are both in the state of Bija and in actual manifestation; from the eighth Bhumi, the three Prajnas are in the. state of Bija, while the last two are in manifestation. The reason why the first is not active is that the Anabhogamarga (the stage in which pure intuition proceeds spontaneously and effortlessly) is incompatible with the first Prajna (which concerns 'intensified effort'). On the other hand, the reason why the third Prajna is active is that all progressive activities in the eighth Bhumi, and in the higher Bhumis, whatever they may be, proceed from the Subsequent Wisdom (Prsthalabdhajnana) which, in the course of pure contemplation, arises spontaneously.

Among the Buddhas in the final or Nistha stage (that of ultimate realization), the last two Prajnas are both in the state of Bija and in actual manifestation. The reason why the first is absent is that, in this final stage, everything that is from Prayoga (the first Prajna) has, in fact, been abandoned.

On examining the Paramitas and the Siksas from the point of view of their self-nature (svabhava), it will be found that Adhisilam Siksa (commandments) comprises Silaparamita; Adhicittam Siksa comprises the Dhyanaparamita; and Adhiprajnam Siksa comprises the last five Paramitas. But, taking into account the ‘escorts’, that is to say, the dharmas which accompany both the Paramitas and the Siksas, there is reciprocal inclusion of the ten and the three.

On examining the functions of the Paramitas and the Siksas, it will be perceived that (a) Adhisila comprises: (i) the Danaparamita, because Dana is the 'preparatory provision' for Sila; (ii) the Silaparamita, which is Sila by nature; (iii) the Ksantiparamita, because Ksanti is the escort of Sila [In order not to violate the commandments, one must be patient]; (b) Adhicitta comprises the Dhyanaparamita; (c) Adhiprajna comprises the last five Paramitas; and (d) Viryaparamita comprises all the three Siksas, because it helps all of them.

From another point of view, Adhisila comprises the first four Paramitas, the three enumerated above, and the Viryaparamita which protects it; Adhicitta comprises the Dhyanaparamita； and Adhiprajna coniprises the last five Paramitas.

12. The Paramitas and the Five Stages

The ten Paramitas exist in all the five stages; but it is in the stage of Bhavana that their characteristics are most clearly manifested.

In the course of the first two stages, for Bodhisattvas of instantaneous realization, the Bijas of the Paramitas are pure and impure, but the Paramitas in actual manifestation are exclusively impure. As for Bodhisattvas who progress by gradual realization, both the Bijas of the Paramitas and the Paramitas in actual manifestation are pure and impure, because these Bodhisattvas have already obtained the pure contemplation of Pudgalasunyata.

In the stage of Prativedha (that of unimpeded penetrating understanding), the Bijas are pure and impure, while the actual Paramitas are pure.

In the stage of Bhavana, up to and including the seventh Bhumi, the Paramitas, whether in the state of Bija or in actual manifestation, are pure and impure. From the eighth Bhumi, the Bijas are pure and impure, while the actual Paramitas are exclusively pure.

Among the Buddhas in the final stage of Nistha, the Bijas and actual Paramitas are all exclusively pure.

13. Different Designations for the Paramitas

The ten Paramita-virtues, among non-Buddhas, take successively three names.

1. 'Remote Paramita’, in the course of the first Asamkhyeya (innumerable kalpas, i.e., countless aeons). - During this epoch, the force of charity (Dana) and of the other virtues is so weak that, far from suppressing the klesas, the virtues are suppressed by the klesas. Klesas enter into manifestation spon¬taneously without prior reflection.

2.     'Proximate Paramita', in the course of the second Asamkhyeya. – During this epoch, the force of charity and of the other virtues increases gradually: the virtues are not suppressed by the klesas. On the contrary, they suppress the klesas. The klesas no longer enter into manifestation unless voluntarily.

3.     'Mahaparamita', in the course of the third Asamkhyeya. - During this epoch, the force of charity and of the other virtues has become very strong: the virtues are capable of absolutely suppressing all klesas, which, from then onwards, can never again enter into activity. However, there still remains the subtle Jneyavarana, either in actual manifestation or in the state of Bija; there remain aiso the Bijas of Klesavarana. The Paramitas are therefore not yet perfect.

Distinctions to be established among the Paramitas are without number. In order not to be too elaborate and tedious, we shall limit ourselves to this summary.

In fact, the ten Paramitas are practised in all the ten Bhumis; nevertheless, one may attribute to each of the Bhumis the Paramita which is dominant in it.

Innumerable are the moral practices of the ten Bhumis; however they are all comprised in the ten Paramitas.